Hence, classroom goal structures are a particularly important target for intervention (Friedel et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2010). The effects of social identity on motivation and performance may be positive, as illustrated in the previous section, but negative stereotypes can lead people to underperform on cognitive tasks (see Steele et al., 2002; Walton and Spencer, 2009). The notion of goal orientations plays a central role in models of language learning that include motivation. Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits of several strategies for strengthening students sense of their competence for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. Webwhat was milan known for during the renaissance; five motivational orientations in the learning process to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time. At the end of the year, students in the growth mindset condition had significantly improved their math grades compared to students who only learned about study skills. Further, congruence in learners perceptions of their own and their schools mastery orientation is associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan and Maehr, 1999). For example, activities that learners perceive as enjoyable or interesting can foster engagement without the learners. However, as Yeager and Walton (2011) note, the effectiveness of these interventions appears to depend on both context and implementation. A persons motivation to persist in learning in spite of obstacles and setbacks is facilitated when goals for learning and achievement are made explicit, are congruent with the learners desired outcomes and motives, and are supported by the learning environment, as judged by the learner; this perspective is illustrated in Box 6-2. or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one. In an influential paper, Markus and Kitayama (1991) distinguished between independent and interdependent self-construals and proposed that these may be associated with individualistic or collectivistic goals. This means the identity a person takes on at any moment is contingent on the circumstances, A number of studies indicate that a positive identification with ones racial or ethnic identity supports a sense of school belonging, as well as greater interest, engagement, and success in academic pursuits. 143145; also see Cerasoli et al.. 2016; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). In one classroom study, cues in the form of gendered objects in the room led high school girls to report less interest in taking computer science courses (Master et al., 2015). The texts that students viewed as less interesting interfered with comprehension in that they, for example, offered incomplete or shallow explanations, contained difficult vocabulary, or lacked coherence. In both cases, it is a change in mindset and goal construction brought about by interest that explains improved learning outcomes (Barron, 2006; Bricker and Bell, 2014; Goldman and Booker, 2009). For example, some research suggests that intrinsic motivation to persist at a task may decrease if a learner receives extrinsic rewards contingent on performance. Students may misinterpret short-term failure as reflecting that they do not belong, when in fact short-term failure is common among all college students. Typically, in language learning theorizing, a goal orientation is viewed as a reason, or a cluster of reasons for learning the language. Several studies have replicated this finding (Beilock et al., 2008; Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2006; Good et al., 2008; Spencer et al., 1999), and the finding is considered to be robust, especially on high-stakes tests such as the SAT (Danaher and Crandall, 2008) and GRE. These students experience a form of stereotype threat, where prevailing cultural stereotypes about their position in the world cause them to doubt themselves and perform more poorly (Steele and Aronson, 1995). throughout the life course. WebLearning to teach is construed as a process of learning to understand, develop, and use oneself effectively. Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text. Learners may not always be conscious of their goals or of the motivation processes that relate to their goals. You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. This requires bolstering or repositioning dimensions of social identity. Webmotivation which focused on group differences (see Graham, 1994). In the short term, stereotype threat can result in upset, distraction, anxiety, and other conditions that interfere with learning and performance (Pennington et al., 2016). Identity is a persons sense of who she is. Another important aspect of self-attribution involves beliefs about whether one belongs in a particular learning situation. Research on motivation has been strongly driven by theories that overlap and contain similar concepts. By contrast, learners with performance goals tend to focus on learning individual bits of information separately, which improves speed of learning and immediate recall but may undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. 3 When an individual encounters negative stereotypes about his social identity group in the context of a cognitive task, he may underperform on that task; this outcome is attributed to stereotype threat (Steele, 1997). Such interventions appear particularly promising for African American students and other cultural groups who are subjected to negative stereotypes about learning and ability. During adolescence, for example, social belongingness goals may take precedence over academic achievement goals: young people may experience greater motivation and improved learning in a group context that fosters relationships that serve and support achievement. In a large study of students across several nations that examined seven different dimensions related to self-construal (Vignoles et al., 2016), researchers found neither a consistent contrast between Western and non-Western cultures nor one between collectivistic and individualistic cultures. 3 Types of Learning and the Developing Brain, Appendix A: History of the How People Learn Studies and Their Use, Appendix B: List of Relevant Reports Published by the National Academies Press, Appendix C: Study Populations in Research on Learning, Appendix D: Committee and Staff Biographies, Pursues opportunities to bolter self-esteem, High grades, performing better than others. At other times, features of the learning environment energize a state of wanting to know more, which activates motivational processes. A learning orientation is a mental set that enables stakeholders to evaluate and recalibrate inputs and the outcomes, processes and policies required for growth. One is to remove the social identity characteristic (e.g., race or gender) as an evaluating factor, thereby reducing the possibility of confirming a stereotype (Steele, 1997). friendships and more flexible action plans for achieving those goals. View our suggested citation for this chapter. Similar negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003). article continues 7 Jrvenoja 8 suggests that motivation The experience of being evaluated in academic settings can heighten self-awareness, including awareness of the stereotypes linked to the social group to which one belongs and that are associated with ones ability (Steele, 1997). Research related to mindsets has focused on patterns in how learners construe goals and make choices about how to direct attention and effort. Findings from studies of this sort suggest that educators can foster students interest by selecting resources that promote interest, by providing feedback that supports attention (Renninger and Hidi, 2002), by demonstrating their own interest in a topic, and by generating positive affect in learning contexts (see review by Hidi and Renninger, 2006). The effectiveness of brief interventions appears to stem from their impact on the individuals construal of the situation and the motivational processes they set in motion, which in turn support longer-term achievement. This phenomenon is known as stereotype threat, an unconscious worry that a stereotype about ones social group could be applied to oneself or that one might do something to confirm the stereotype (Steele, 1997). The personal dimensions of identity tend to be traits (e.g., being athletic or smart) and values (e.g., being strongly committed to a set of religious or political beliefs). This approach has allowed researchers to assess the separate effects of topic interest and interest in a specific text on how readers interact with text, by measuring the amount of time learners spend reading and what they learn from it. In one study, for example, researchers asked college students either to design a Web page advertisement for an online journal and then refine it several times or to create several separate ones (Dow et al., 2010). Students can maintain positive academic self-concepts in spite of negative stereotypes when supported in doing so (Anderman and Maehr, 1994; Graham, 1994; Yeager and Walton, 2011). In this way, performance goals tend to support better immediate retrieval of information, while mastery goals tend to support better long-term retention (Crouzevialle and Butera, 2013). Although research suggests steps that educators can take that may help to. In a prototypical experiment to test stereotype threat, a difficult achievement test is given to individuals who belong to a group for whom a negative stereotype about ability in that achievement domain exists. The 2010 study included a total of 207 (54% female) high school students from ninth through twelfth grade. For example, they argued that East Asian cultures tend to emphasize collectivistic goals, which promote a comparatively interdependent self-construal in which the self is experienced as socially embedded and ones accomplishments are tied to the community. Theoretical approaches are an understandably integral part of the therapeutic Given the prevalence. Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. Researchers have linked this theory to peoples intrinsic motivation to learn (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000). If competence is the main motivator To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. In this section, the committee discusses three specific lines of research that illustrate the importance of culturally mediated views of the self and social identities to learners perceptions of learning environments, goals, and performance. Knowing that one has made a choice (owning the choice) can protect against the discouraging effects of negative feedback during the learning process, an effect that has been observed at the neurophysiological level (Murayama et al., 2015). Measures and instruments Intrinsic and Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom. Students who shift between these two mindsets may take a reflective stance that enables them to inspire themselves and to persist and perform well on difficult tasks to attain future goals (Immordino-Yang and Sylvan, 2010). less likely to seek challenges and persist than those who focus on learning itself. For instance, priming learners to adopt a multicultural mindset may support more-divergent thinking about multiple possible goals related to achievement, family, identity, and. The teacher's own development becomes a central goal of teacher education. Study participants who adopted performance goals were found to be concerned with communicating competence, prioritizing areas of high ability, and avoiding challenging tasks or areas in which they perceived themselves to be weaker than others (Darnon et al., 2007; Elliot and Murayama, 2008). Research is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to shape learners thinking about future identities and persistence. Learners ideas about their own competence, their values, and the preexisting interests they bring to a particular learning situation all influence motivation. For example, women for whom the poor-at-math stereotype was primed reported. The book expands on the foundation laid out in the 2000 report and takes an in-depth look at the constellation of influences that affect individual learning. Among college-age African Americans, underperformance occurs in contexts in which students believe they are being academically evaluated (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Motivational models consider motivation a construct to explain the beginning, direction and perseverance of a conduct toward a certain academic goal that centers on inherent questions to the learning process, academic performance and/or the self, social evaluation or to even avoid work. What is already known does support the following general guidance for educators: CONCLUSION 6-2: Educators may support learners motivation by attending to their engagement, persistence, and performance by: There are many reasons to be curious about the way people learn, and the past several decades have seen an explosion of research that has important implications for individual learning, schooling, workforce training, and policy. A sense of competence may also foster interest and motivation, particularly when students are given the opportunity to make choices about their learning activities (Patall et al., 2014). One explanation for these findings is that a sense of competence emerges from identity: as players, students felt competent to calculate scoring averages and percentages, but because they did not identify as math students, they felt ill-equipped to solve the same problems in the classroom context. Another approach to overcoming the bias of knowledge is to use strategies that can prevent some of the undesirable consequences of holding negative perspectives. For example, a brief intervention was designed to enhance student motivation by helping learners to overcome the negative impact of stereotype threat on social belongingness and sense of self (Yeager et al., 2016). The teacher reported that from March through September this student was judged consistently as green (successful) because he worked hard and interacted appropriately with others. Individual or personal interest is viewed as a relatively stable attribute of the individual. In the performance phase, self-control and self-observation are the main processes. Web1. The value of culturally connected racial/ethnic identity is also evident for Mexican and Chinese adolescents (Fuligni et al., 2005). However, some studies have suggested that task valuation seems to be the strongest predictor of behaviors associated with motivation, such as choosing topics and making decisions about participation in training (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2008). The idea that extrinsic rewards harm intrinsic motivation has been supported in a meta-analysis of 128 experiments (Deci et al., 1999, 2001). In stark contrast, less than one-quarter (24%) of those praised for effort opted for performance information. Enabling threatened individuals to affirm their talents in other domains through self-affirmations has in some situations strengthened students sense of self (McQueen and Klein, 2006). Stereotype threat also may have long-term deleterious effects because it can lead people to conclude that they are not likely to be successful in a domain of performance (Aronson, 2004; Steele, 1997). The goal of this study was to investigate the relation between a set of pre-decisional beliefs including students task value, self-efficacy, and learning and performance goal orientations and five post-decisional, implementation strategies students use to regulate their effort and persistence for the academic tasks assigned for a specific class. Motivation is distinguishable from general cognitive functioning and helps to explain gains in achievement independent of scores on intelligence tests (Murayama et al., 2013). These factors include learners beliefs and values, personal goals, and social and cultural context. Academic goals are shaped not only by the immediate learning context but also by the learners goals and challenges, which develop and change. Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email. Some interventions focus on the psychological mechanisms that affect students construal of the learning environment and the goals they develop to adapt to that environment. Many studies of how interest affects learning have included measures of reading comprehension and text recall. Choice may be particularly effective for individuals with high initial interest in the domain, and it may also generate increased interest (Patall, 2013). Individuals tend to engage in activities that connect them to their social identities because doing so can support their sense of belonging and esteem and help them integrate into a social group. As we discuss below, learners who have a fixed view of intelligence tend to set demonstrating competence as a learning goal, whereas learners who have an incremental theory of intelligence tend to set mastery as a goal and to place greater value on effort. Students who received praise for ability were more likely to adopt performance goals on a subsequent test, whereas those praised for effort were more likely to adopt mastery goals. When competition is using as a motivational strategy it arouse aspiration of wining, doing better than others. All learners goals emerge in a particular cultural context. Learners who embrace performance-avoidance goals work to avoid looking incompetent or being embarrassed or judged as a failure, whereas those who adopt performance-approach goals seek to appear more competent than others and to be judged socially in a favorable light. To reduce this feeling, individuals tend to change their preferences to especially value and become interested in the thing they chose (Izuma et al., 2010). WebMotivation is the force that propels an individuals engagement with a given course of action. It is critical to learning and achievement across the life span in both informal settings and formal learning environments. Supporters of the personal orientation emphasize the teacher's quest for self -understanding and personal meaning. being tested. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000), learners are intrinsically motivated to learn when they perceive that they have a high degree of autonomy and engage in an activity willingly, rather than because they are being externally controlled. Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). Learning environments differ in the learning expectations, rules, and. So, what was the problem? Mastery students are also persistenteven in the face of failureand frequently use failure as an opportunity to seek feedback and improve subsequent performance (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). For example, in one study of college students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, and valued; (2) the information was unexpected; (3) the text supported readers in making connections with prior knowledge or experience; (4) the text contained imagery and descriptive language; and (5) the author attempted to relate information to readers background knowledge using, for example, comparisons and analogies (Wade et al., 1999). The effects of negative stereotypes about African American and Latino students are among the most studied in this literature because these stereotypes have been persistent in the United States (Oyserman et al., 1995). Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. A recent study examined interventions designed to boost the sense of belonging among African American college freshmen (Walton and Cohen, 2011). In contrast, situational interest refers to a psychological state that arises spontaneously in response to specific features of the task or learning environment (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). For example, women are given a test in math. The concept of value encompasses learners judgments about (1) whether a topic or task is useful for achieving learning or life goals, (2) the importance of a topic or task to the learners identity or sense of self, (3) whether a task is enjoyable or interesting, and (4) whether a task is worth pursuing (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). We begin by describing some of the primary theoretical perspectives that have shaped this research, but our focus is on four primary influences on peoples motivation to learn. This body of work seems to suggest that though there were differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones. Studies such as these are grounded in different theories of motivation related to the learners cognition, affect, or behavior and are intended to affect different aspects of motivation. Further, when given the choice, a higher proportion (86%) of students praised for ability chose to examine a folder they were told contained average scores of other test takers, rather than a folder they were told contained new interesting strategies for solving similar test problems. The Self-regulated It is characterized by a learners enduring connection to a domain and willingness to re-engage in learning in that domain over time (Schiefele, 2009). One reason proposed for such findings is that learners initial interest in the task and desire for success are replaced by their desire for the extrinsic reward (Deci and Ryan, 1985). It also appears that the learner must tie her identity to the domain of skills. The dimensions of identity are dynamic, malleable, and very sensitive to the situations in which people find themselves (Oyserman, 2009; Steele, 1997). Over the life span, academic achievement goals also become linked to career goals, and these may need to be adapted over time. For example, Hoffman and Haussler (1998) found that high school girls displayed significantly more interest in the physics related to the working of a pump when the mechanism was put into a real-world context: the use of a pump in heart surgery. Not a MyNAP member yet? After 3 years, African American students who had participated in the intervention reported less uncertainty about belonging and showed greater improvement in their grade point averages compared to the European American students. Thus, teaching strategies that use rewards to capture and stimulate interest in a topic (rather than to drive compliance), that provide the student with encouragement (rather than reprimands), and that are perceived to guide student progress (rather than just monitor student progress) can foster feelings of autonomy, competence, and academic achievement (e.g., Vansteenkist et al., 2004). Neurophysiological evidence supports this understanding of the mechanisms underlying stereotype threat. WebThe instruments used to assess motivational orientation and strategic learning are described below. Moreover, in some circumstances external rewards such as praise or prizes can help to encourage engagement and persistence, and they may not harm intrinsic motivation over the long term, provided that the extrinsic reward does not undermine the individuals sense of autonomy and control over her behavior (see National Research Council, 2012c, pp.

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